Sokoto Caliphate

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This article is about the 19th century state. For the Nigerian traditional state, see Sokoto Sultanate Council.
Sokoto Caliphate
  • Daular Khalifar Sakkwato  (language?)
  • دَوْلَةُ الخَلاِفَة فَي بِلَاد السُودَان  (language?)
  • al-Khilāfat fi'l-Bilād as-Sūdān
Flag of Sokoto Caliphate
Flag
Location of Sokoto Caliphate
Capital
Religion Sunni Islam
Government Caliphate
Legislature Shura
Area
 •  Total 400,000 km2[1]
154,441 sq mi
Currency Dirham

The Sokoto Caliphate (دولة الخلافة في بلاد السودان), also known as the Sultanate of Sokoto,[2] was a Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa. Usman dan Fodio established it in 1804 during the Fulani jihads after having defeated the Hausa Kingdoms in the Fulani War. The boundaries of the caliphate are part of present-day Cameroon, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria.[3][4] By 1837, the sultanate had a population of around 10-20 plus million people, becoming the most populous emirate in West Africa.[5][6]

After the Hausa King Yunfa attempted to assassinate Usman dan Fodio in 1802, Usman and his followers migrated towards Gudu in February 1804. Usman's followers pledged allegiance to Usman as the Commander of the Faithful (Template:Transliteration). The Sokoto sultanate had gained control over Hausaland and several surrounding states by 1808. During the reign of the sixth caliph Ahmadu Rufai, the state reached its maximum extent, covering a large swath of West Africa. In 1903, the twelfth caliph Attahiru was assassinated by British forces, marking the end of the caliphate and possible rise of the sultanate.[7]


It is estimated that about 1 million to 2.5 million non-Muslim slaves were captured during the Fulani War.[8] Slaves worked plantations and much of the population were forcibly converted to Islam.[9][10] By 1900, Sokoto had "at least 1 million and perhaps as many as 2.5 million slaves" second only to the American South (which had four million in 1860) in size among all modern slave societies.[8]


The legacy of the Sokoto Caliphate and Usman dan Fodio's teachings left a lasting impact on the region's history, including contemporary Nigeria and West Africa. The Sokoto area produced some of the most renowned writers in West Africa with the three main reformist leaders, Usman, Abdullahi and Bello, writing more than three hundred books combined on a wide variety of topics including logic, tafsir, mathematics, governance, law, astronomy, grammar, medicine and so on. Some other famous scholars of the caliphate era were Shaikh Dan Tafa and Nana Asma'u. All of these scholars are still being widely studied around West Africa and some even as far as the Middle East.[11][12][13]

History

Background

The Bornu Empire had been the major power in the region in the 17th and 18th centuries. However, revolutions and the rise of new powers decreased the power of the Bornu empire and by 1759 its rulers had lost control over the oasis town of Bilma and access to the Trans-Saharan trade.[14] Vassal cities of the empire gradually became autonomous, and the result by 1780 was a political array of independent states in the region.[14]


File:Sokoto River system.png
The Sokoto-Rima river system


Fulani Wars

Main article: Fulani War
An Islamic scholar and an urbanized Fulani, Usman dan Fodio, had been actively educating and preaching in the city of Gobir with the approval and support of the Hausa leadership of the city. However, when a former student of dan Fodio, Yunfa, became the sultan of Gobir, he restricted dan Fodio's activities, eventually forcing him into exile in Gudu.[14]Template:Sfnp A large number of people left Gobir to join dan Fodio, who also began to gather new supporters from other regions. Feeling threatened by his former teacher, Sultan Yunfa declared war on dan FodioTemplate:Sfnp on February 21, 1804.
File:Fula jihad states map general c1830.png
265x265px
Usman dan Fodio was elected as the "Commander of the Faithful" (Template:Transliteration) by his followers,Template:Sfnp marking the beginning of the Sokoto sultanate. Usman dan Fodio then created a number of flag bearers amongst those following him, creating an early political structure of the emirate.[14] Declaring a jihad against the Hausa kings, dan Fodio rallied his primarily Fulani "warrior-scholars" against Gobir.Template:Sfnp Starting in 1805, despite early losses at the Battle of Tsuntua and elsewhere, the forces of dan Fodio began taking over some key cities.[14] The Fulani used guerrilla warfare to turn the conflict in their favor, and gathered support from the civilian population and even some non-Muslim Fulani, which had come to resent the despotic rule and high taxes of the Hausa Template:Sfnp The war which lasted from 1804 until 1808, resulted in thousands of deaths.Template:Sfnp[14] The forces of dan Fodio were able to capture the states of Katsina and Daura, the important kingdom of Kano in 1807,[14] and finally conquered Gobir in 1809.Template:Sfnp The son of dan Fodio, Muhammed Bello, founded the city of Sokoto in the same year, which became the capital of the Sokoto sultanate.[15]

The jihad resulted "a new slaving frontier on the basis of rejuvenated Islam."[8] The Sokoto state had "at least 1 million and perhaps as many as 2.5 million slaves by 1900", second only to the United States (which had 4 million in 1860) in size among all modern slave societies.[8]

File:AFR V3 D371 A Sokoto Fulah - Brother of the Sultan.jpg
A brother of Sultan Umaru bin Ali (1888) by Élisée Reclus

Notable Flag-Bearers of the Caliphate and their Emirates

Main article: Emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate
Name Emirate
Abu Hamid Zurmi Emirate
Umar Dallaji Katsina Emirate
Suleiman dan Abu Hamma Kano Emirate
Yaqubu dan Dadi Bauchi Emirate
Ishaq Daura Emirate
Musa ibn Suleiman Ibn Muhammad Zazzau Emirate
Ibrahim Zakiyul Kalbi Katagum Emirate
Modibbo Adama Adamawa Emirate
Buba Yero Gombe Emirate

Expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate

The Sokoto sultanate expanded from 1808 until the mid-1830s, , gradually annexing the plains to the west and key parts of Yorubaland. It became one of the largest sultanates in Africa, stretching from modern-day Burkina Faso to Cameroon and including most of northern Nigeria and southern Niger. The Sokoto state included over 30 different emirates under its political structure at its height.[5] The political structure of the sultanate was organized with the Sultan of Sokoto ruling from the city of Sokoto (and for a brief period under Muhammad Bello from Wurno). The leader of each emirate was appointed by the sultan as the flag bearer for that city but was given wide independence and autonomy.[16] Much of the growth of the sultanate occurred through the establishment of an extensive system of ribats as part of the consolidation policy of the second Sultan, Muhammed Bello.[17] Ribats were established, founding a number of new cities with walled fortresses, markets, schools, and other buildings. These proved crucial in expansion through developing new cities, settling the pastoral Fulani people, and supporting the growth of plantations which were vital to the economy.[10]

The expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate had significant impacts on local populations. In many cases, conquered peoples were assimilated into the Caliphate, adopting Islam and becoming part of the Caliphate's political and social structures. In other cases, communities resisted the Caliphate's rule, leading to conflicts and tensions that sometimes persisted for years.[18] The most significant impact was the spread of Islam among the local populations. The Sokoto Caliphate was extremely Islamic, and it actively sought to convert the peoples of the territories it conquered. As a result, Islam became the dominant religion in the region, with profound implications for local cultures, legal systems, and social norms.

File:Fulani in the Sokoto Caliphate.jpg
A Fulani from the Sokoto Caliphate

More so, the Caliphate's administrative and social structures were imposed on conquered territories. The Caliphate established a system of emirates, with appointed emirs overseeing local governance. The social hierarchy saw the Sultan and the ruling elite at the top, followed by free Muslims, non-Muslims, and slaves. This system significantly altered the political fabric of the region.[8]


Administrative structure

The Sokoto state was largely organized around a number of largely independent emirates pledging allegiance to the sultan of Sokoto. The administration was initially built to follow those of Muhammad during his time in Medina, but also the theories of Al-Mawardi in "The Ordinances of Government".[16] The Hausa kingdoms prior to Usman dan Fodio had been run largely through hereditary succession.[citation needed]

The early rulers of Sokoto, dan Fodio and Bello, abolished systems of hereditary succession, preferring leaders to be appointed by virtue of their Islamic scholarship and moral standing.[15] Emirs were appointed by the sultan; they traveled yearly to pledge allegiance and deliver taxes in the form of crops, cowry shells, and slaves.[5] When a sultan died or retired from the office, an appointment council made up of the emirs would select a replacement.[16] Direct lines of succession were largely not followed, although each sultan claimed direct descent from dan Fodio.[citation needed]

The caliphate absorbed many of the structures of governments of their Hausa predecessors which they had conquered. It ruled under Islamic law with powers falling to the emirates which made up the caliphate. A large number of emirs and senior officials were Fulani clerics and scholars who participated in the Fulani War.[19]

The major administrative division was between Sokoto and the Gwandu Emirate. In 1815, Usman dan Fodio retired from the administrative business of the state and divided the area taken over during the Fulani War with his brother Abdullahi dan Fodio ruling in the west with the Gwandu Emirate and his son Muhammed Bello taking over administration of the Sokoto Sultanate. The Emir at Gwandu retained allegiance to the Sokoto Sultanate and spiritual guidance from the sultan, but the emir managed the separate emirates under his supervision independently from the sultan.[16]

File:Africa de l'Oèst en 1875-es.svg
Sokoto Caliphate, c. 1875

The administrative structure of loose allegiances of the emirates to the sultan did not always function smoothly. There was a series of revolutions by the Hausa aristocracy in 1816–1817 during the reign of Muhammed Bello, but the sultan ended these by granting the leaders titles to land.[10] There were multiple crises that arose during the 19th century between the Sokoto Sultanate and many of the subservient emirates: notably, the Adamawa Emirate and the Kano Emirate.[20] A serious revolt occurred in 1836 in the city-state of Gobir, which was crushed by Muhammed Bello at the Battle of Gawakuke.[21]

The Sufi community throughout the region proved crucial in the administration of the state. The Tariqa brotherhoods, most notably the Qadiriyya, to which every successive sultan of Sokoto was an adherent,[22] provided a group linking the distinct emirates to the authority of the sultan. Scholars Burnham and Last claim that this Islamic scholarship community provided an "embryonic bureaucracy" which linked the cities throughout the Sokoto state.[16]

Viziers of Sokoto

Main article: Sokoto Grand Vizier

The Caliphate and its resulting emirates each had Viziers (Waziris) as they are called in the Caliphate. These Viziers mostly came from the most learned families in Sokoto, learned not only in the legal and political aspects of Islam but also in its mystical side. The classical vizierate is based on some verses from the Quran.[23]

346x346px

Template:Verse translation

The vizierate in Sokoto was based on the Abbasid Caliphate version of the position. Shaikh Uthman dan Fodio's book, Bayan wujab al-hijra, justifies the existence of the position in the caliphate:
The first pillar [of a kingdom] is an upright wazir (vizier) over the wilaya who wakens [the king] if he sleeps and gives him sight if he cannot see and reminds him if he is heedless. The greatest catastrophe which could befall the wilaya and its subjects is to be deprived of good wazirs and helpers. One of the requirements of a wazir is that he should truly be benevolent and kind-hearted towards the people.[23]
The first Grand Vizier of Sokoto was Abdullahi dan Fodio. He was described as a 'helper' to the Shaikh, the most important of his helpers. The 2nd Grand Vizier was Waziri Gidado bin Abu Bakr who was under Sultan Muhammad Bello. All subsequent 'Grand Vizier of Sokoto' came from his family, with his great-grandson, Gidado Idris, continuing the tradition of being the 'helper' to a Head of State by serving as Secretary to the Government of the Federation under the government of General Sani Abacha.

Waziri Gidado was married to the Shaikh's daughter Nana Asma'u dan Fodio. Abdullahi dan Fodio, the previous Grand Vizier, refused to relinquish the position even though Sultan Bello chose Gidado but he later formally recognised Gidado as the new vizier after his reconciliation with Muhammad Bello, giving Gidado his robes in token.[24] As Vizier, Gidado had considerable freedom of judgement. He retired the Emir of Daura, Ishaq, and appointed his son, Zubair bin Ishaq which was later approved by Sultan Bello.[24]

The position had a 'considerable following'. The Scottish explorer Hugh Clapperton in 1826 speaks of 'a numerous train of attendants on horseback and on foot';[25] another explorer Paul Staudinger in 1886 says the Vizier had considerable 'house-power' ('eine ziemliche Hausmacht'), having a hundred gunmen in his following.[26] He had several estates and villages under him but their inhabitants are often scattered and distant from Sokoto only joining him for a major expedition.[27]

Foreign visitors between 1880 and 1890 often saw the position as all-powerful. The Scottish geologist and explorer Joseph Thomson described him as being 'more powerful than the Sultan himself' since 'nothing is done except by his advice';[27] Staudinger reported that he was the most powerful of ministers, almost more so than the Sultan, since all government business went through him;[28] William Wallace found that 'the grand Vizier practically rules the Fulah Empire' and holds 'all the real power, the Sultans being completely hedged in by formalities'.[29] Though these impressions are exaggerated, the Vizier did appear to have the whole civil service under his control. The vizierate never rivalled the Caliph's position. The Vizier was the chief supporter, adviser and friend to the Caliph, and in that position was able to reassert the Islamic tradition in Sokoto.

Military

Template:CaliphateThe military, which was commanded by the Sarkin Yaki (war commander) the title still held by the descendants of Ali Jedo, at the time of the jihad was organized into a standing army and a cavalry.[30] The standing army was composed of Hausa and Fulani warriors who were trained in warfare and were responsible for the Caliphate's defense and the expansion of its territories. The cavalry was an essential part of the military, as horses were the primary mode of transportation during this period.[31] During the expansion, the Caliphate's military utilized a strategy of establishing emirates in conquered territories. These emirates were governed by emirs, who were either appointed by the Sultan or were local rulers who had submitted to the Caliphate's authority. This strategy helped in maintaining control over the vast territories of the Caliphate.[31]

The Sokoto Caliphate relied heavily on the use of cavalry in its military campaigns. The Fulani horsemen, renowned for their equestrian skills, formed the core of the Caliphate's cavalry. They were instrumental in the rapid expansion of the Caliphate's territories.[32] Additionally, the Caliphate's military strategy involved a system of alliances with local rulers. In some cases, these rulers were allowed to maintain their positions under the condition that they pledged allegiance to the Caliphate and adopted Islam. This strategy helped to solidify the Caliphate's control over conquered territories.[32] The military expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate had significant social, political, and economic impacts. It led to the spread of Islam and the Fulani language and culture in the region. The Caliphate's rule also resulted in changes in local governance systems and the economy, with the introduction of new administrative structures and trade networks.

Scholarship

Main article: Yan Taru

Islamic scholarship was a crucial aspect of the Caliphate from its founding. Sultan Usman dan Fodio, Sultan Muhammed Bello, Emir Abdullahi dan Fodio, Sultan Abu Bakr Atiku, and Nana Asma'u devoted significant time to chronicling histories, writing poetry, and Islamic studies. A number of manuscripts are available and they provide crucial historical information and important spiritual texts.[5] This role did diminish after the reign of Bello and Atiku.[citation needed]

Although veiling was practiced, it did not stop women from being educated in the caliphate. Many of the women around Shaikh Uthman dan Fodio, like his wives and daughters, were also his students and attained great learning. Slaves were encouraged to become Muslims and their children were given Muslim education and were taught Arabic.[33]

Economy

File:Fulahs of Sokoto-1900.jpg
Photo of residents of Kano, Sokoto Caliphate in 1900

After the establishment of the Caliphate, there were decades of economic growth throughout the region, particularly after a wave of revolts in 1816–1817.[10] They had significant trade over the trans-Saharan routes.[10]

After the Fulani War, all land in the empire was declared waqf or owned by the entire community. However, the Sultan allocated land to individuals or families, as could an emir. Such land could be inherited by family members but could not be sold.[34] Exchange was based largely on slaves, cowries or gold.[10] Major crops produced included cotton, indigo, kola and shea nuts, grain, rice, tobacco, and onion.[10]

Considerable numbers of scholars and the poor depended on the "great houses" for basic amenities like food and clothing. Food was prepared in the houses, which then acted like communal canteens. Clothing came largely from the payments from the other emirates in the caliphate and was redestributed to the community. This system helped Sokoto maintain a large scholar community.[9]

Slavery remained a large part of the economy, although its operation had changed with the end of the Atlantic slave trade. Slaves were gained through raiding and via markets as had operated earlier in West Africa.[10] The founder of the Caliphate allowed slavery only for non-Muslims; slavery was viewed as a process to bring such peoples into the Muslim community.[15] Around half of the Caliphate's population was enslaved in the 19th century.[35] There was a huge expansion of slaves due to the jihad campaigns, frontier wars and slave raids.[19] The expansion of agricultural plantations under the Caliphate was dependent on slave labor. These plantations were established around the ribats, and large areas of agricultural production took place around the cities of the empire.[10] The institution of slavery was mediated by the lack of a racial barrier among the peoples, and by a complex and varying set of relations between owners and slaves, which included the right to accumulate property by working on their own plots, manumission, and the potential for slaves to convert and become members of the Islamic community.[10] There are historical records of slaves reaching high levels of government and administration in the Sokoto Caliphate.[36]

Its commercial prosperity was also based on Islamic traditions, market integration, internal peace and an extensive export-trade network.[37]

Culture

The Fulani ruling class engaged in marriage alliances with Hausa families. The Hausa language became the language of administration and main medium of poetry in the caliphate.[19]

Legacy

Main article: Sokoto Sultanate Council

Although it has lost its former political power, the Sokoto Sultanate Council continues to exist, and the Sokoto Sultans are still "leading figures in Nigerian society". Even the Presidents of Nigeria have sought their support.Template:Sfnp

Due to its impact, the Sokoto Caliphate is also revered by Islamists in modern Nigeria. For example, the Jihadist militant group Ansaru has vowed to revive the Sokoto Caliphate in order to restore the "lost dignity of Muslims in black Africa".Template:Sfnp

However, it is unfortunate that the influence of the Sokoto Caliphate can also be seen in extremist groups like Boko Haram. Boko Haram, based in northeastern Nigeria, promotes an extremist interpretation of Islam and seeks to establish an Islamic state governed by strict Sharia law. While they have occasionally referenced Usman dan Fodio's legacy to justify their actions, presenting their struggle as a continuation of the original jihad, there are fundamental differences between the two jihadist movements. The Sokoto jihad's intellectual thought, according to historian Michael Cook, can be termed sixteenth to eighteenth centuries Islamic world's "conservative orientation towards intellectual innovation". The three leaders of the jihad, namely Usman, Abdullahi and Bello, drew heavily from Maliki and Qadriyya texts, with connections to wider Islamic intellectual networks. In contrast, Boko Haram operates in a globalized world and draws influences from Salafi and Wahhabi ideology and is connected and influenced by global Salafi jihadist networks.[38][39]


References

  1. ↑ Iliffe, John (1995). Africans : the history of a continent. Internet Archive. Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press. pp. 170. ISBN 978-0-521-48235-6. http://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo0000ilif. 
  2. ↑ Overy, Richard, ed (2015) (in en). The Times Complete History of the World (9th ed.). London: Times Books. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-00-795956-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=388mswEACAAJ. 
  3. ↑ Lofkrantz, Jennifer (2012). "Intellectual Discourse in the Sokoto Caliphate: The Triumvirate's Opinions on the Issue of Ransoming, ca. 1810". The International Journal of African Historical Studies 45 (3): 385–401. JSTOR 24393055. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24393055. 
  4. ↑ McKay, Hill, Buckler, Ebrey, Beck, Crowston, Weisner-Hanks. A History of World Societies. 8th edition. Volume C - From 1775 to the Present. 2009 by Bedford/St. Martin's. ISBN 978-0-312-68298-9. "The most important of these revivalist states, the enormous Sokoto caliphate, illustrates the general pattern. It was founded by Usuman dan Fodio (1754-1817), an inspiring Muslim teacher who first won zealous followers among both the Fulani herders and Hausa peasants in the Muslim state of Gobir in the northern Sudan." p. 736.
  5. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Falola
  6. ↑ "Usman dan Fodio: Sokoto Caliphate founder – DW – 02/24/2020" (in en). https://www.dw.com/en/usman-dan-fodio-founder-of-the-sokoto-caliphate/a-51995841#:~:text=In%201837%2C%20the%20Sokoto%20Caliphate,April%2020%2C%201817%20in%20Sokoto.. 
  7. ↑ Falola, Toyin (2009). Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 McKay, John P.; Hill, Bennett D. (2011). A History of World Societies, Volume 2: Since 1450, Volume 2. Macmillan. p. 755. ISBN 9780312666934. https://books.google.com/books?id=NF-mWCNY_boC&q=%22islamic+revival%22+slavery&pg=PA755. 
  9. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :1
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 Lovejoy, Paul E. (1978). "Plantations in the Economy of the Sokoto Caliphate". The Journal of African History 19 (3): 341–368. doi:10.1017/s0021853700016200. 
  11. ↑ Buba, Malami (2018). "The legacies of the Sokoto Caliphate in contemporary Nigeria" (in en). History Compass 16 (8): e12482. doi:10.1111/hic3.12482. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/hic3.12482. 
  12. ↑ "INTERVIEW: Why every Nigerian should be proud of the Sokoto Caliphate — Prof Murray Last". https://www.premiumtimesng.com/features-and-interviews/496263-interview-why-every-nigerian-should-be-proud-of-the-sokoto-caliphate-prof-murray-last.html. 
  13. ↑ John O. Hunwick, Razaq Abubakre (1995). Arabic Literature of Africa: The writings of Central Sudanic Africa. Vol. 2. pp. 220. http://archive.org/details/arabic-literature-of-africa-the-writings-of-central-sudanic-africa. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Maishanu, Hamza Muhammad; Isa Muhammad Maishanu (1999). "The Jihad and the Formation of the Sokoto Caliphate". Islamic Studies 38 (1): 119–131. 
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Chafe
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Burnham, Peter; Murray Last (1994). "From Pastoralist to Politician: The Problem of a Fulbe "Aristocracy"". Cahiers d'Études Africaines 34 (133): 313–357. doi:10.3406/cea.1994.2055. 
  17. ↑ Salau, Mohammed Bashir (2006). "Ribats and the Development of Plantations in the Sokoto Caliphate: A Case Study of Fanisau". African Economic History 34 (34): 23–43. doi:10.2307/25427025. JSTOR 25427025. 
  18. ↑ The History of Islam in Africa. Nehemia Levtzion, Randall Lee Pouwels. Athens: Ohio University Press. 2000. ISBN 0-8214-1296-5. OCLC 41645936. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41645936. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Meredith, Martin (2014). The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000 Year History of Wealth, Greed and Endeavour. New York: Public Affairs. pp. 166. ISBN 978-1-61039-459-8. http://archive.org/details/fortunesofafrica0000mere_b3d2. 
  20. ↑ Njeuma, Martin Z. (2012). Fulani Hegemony in Yola (Old Adamawa) 1809-1902. Cameroon: Langa. 
  21. ↑ Last, Murray (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. New York: Humanities Press. pp. 74–75. 
  22. ↑ Hiskett, M. The Sword of Truth; the Life and times of the Shehu Usuman Dan Fodio. New York: Oxford UP, 1973. Print.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Last, Murray (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. Internet Archive. [New York] Humanities Press. pp. 146–147. http://archive.org/details/sokotocaliphate0000last. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Last, Murray (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. Internet Archive. [New York] Humanities Press. pp. 153. http://archive.org/details/sokotocaliphate0000last. 
  25. ↑ Clapperton, Hugh (1966). Journal of a second expedition into the interior of Africa : from the Bight of Benin to Soccatoo : to which is added the Journal of Richard Lander from Kano to the sea-coast, partly by a more eastern route. Internet Archive. London : Frank Cass. pp. 177. http://archive.org/details/journalofseconde0000clap. 
  26. ↑ Staudinger, Paul (1889). Im Herzen der Haussaländer. pp. 365. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Last, Murray (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. Internet Archive. [New York] Humanities Press. pp. 224. http://archive.org/details/sokotocaliphate0000last. 
  28. ↑ Staudinger, Paul (1889) (in German). Im Herzen der Haussa Länder. Berlin. pp. 365. 
  29. ↑ Wallace, William (1896). "Notes on a Journey through the Sokoto Empire and Borgu in 1894". The Geographical Journal 8 (3): 211–219. doi:10.2307/1774182. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 1774182. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1774182. 
  30. ↑ Sheriff, Vaffi Foday. "Transformation of Sokoto Caliphate by Sheik Usman Danfodiyo: A Social Thought Perspective". International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention 5 (8): 41–47. http://www.ijhssi.org/papers/v5(8)/G050801041047.pdf. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Smith, Robert Sydney (1989). Warfare and diplomacy in pre-colonial West Africa (2nd ed.). London: Currey. ISBN 0-85255-027-8. OCLC 18743528. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/18743528. 
  32. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :5
  33. ↑ Last, Murray (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. Internet Archive. [New York] Humanities Press. pp. 234. http://archive.org/details/sokotocaliphate0000last. 
  34. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Swindell
  35. ↑ "Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157. 
  36. ↑ Stilwell, Sean (2000). "Power, Honour and Shame: The Ideology of Royal Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate". Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 70 (3): 394–421. doi:10.3366/afr.2000.70.3.394. 
  37. ↑ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.. Cambridge University Press. p. 323. ISBN 9781107507180. 
  38. ↑ Lofkrantz, Jennifer (2018). "Intellectual Traditions, Education, and Jihad: The (Non)Parallels between the Sokoto and Boko Haram Jihads". Journal of West African History 4 (1): 75–98. doi:10.14321/jwestafrihist.4.1.0075. ISSN 2327-1868. JSTOR 10.14321/jwestafrihist.4.1.0075. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.14321/jwestafrihist.4.1.0075. 
  39. ↑ Last, Murray (2013). "Contradictions in Creating a Jihadi Capital: Sokoto in the Nineteenth Century and Its Legacy". African Studies Review 56 (2): 1–20. ISSN 0002-0206. JSTOR 43904924. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43904924. 
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